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tip stability

  • 1 tip stability

    1. устойчивость против опрокидывания

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > tip stability

  • 2 tip stability

    устойчивость против опрокидывания( морского основания)

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > tip stability

  • 3 tip stability


    * * *
    * * *

    Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > tip stability

  • 4 tip stability

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > tip stability

  • 5 tip stability

    Англо-русский словарь промышленной и научной лексики > tip stability

  • 6 stability

    устойчивость; состояние равновесия; стабильность; мор. остойчивость

    * * *
    устойчивость; стабильность; стойкость

    reliability stability after storage — стабильность надёжности (свойство системы сохранять надёжность) после определённого срока хранения (в определённых условиях)


    * * *
    стойкость, устойчивость,.состояние равновесия

    * * *
    устойчивость; стабильность; стойкость
    - corrosion stability
    - cracking stability
    - damaged stability
    - derrick stability
    - drilling mud stability
    - drilling mud chemical stability
    - drilling mud thermal stability
    - electrical stability
    - emulsion stability
    - mast stability
    - mud stability
    - oil stability
    - oxidation stability
    - reliability stability after storage
    - seismic stability
    - shear stability
    - standing stability
    - storage stability
    - tip stability
    - viscosity stability
    - voltage stability
    * * *
    • 1) стабильность; 2) остойчивость

    Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > stability

  • 7 устойчивость против опрокидывания

    tip stability

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > устойчивость против опрокидывания

  • 8 устойчивость против опрокидывания

    * * *

    Русско-английский словарь по нефти и газу > устойчивость против опрокидывания

  • 9 устойчивость против опрокидывания

    1. tip stability

    Русско-английский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > устойчивость против опрокидывания

  • 10 устойчивость против опрокидывания

    Универсальный русско-английский словарь > устойчивость против опрокидывания

  • 11 я ничего не имею против

    лежать в дрейфе; держаться против ветра — lie to

    Русско-английский большой базовый словарь > я ничего не имею против

  • 12 equilibrio

    m.
    1 balance.
    mantener algo en equilibrio to balance something
    mantener/perder el equilibrio to keep/lose one's balance
    hay un equilibrio de fuerzas the forces are evenly balanced
    equilibrio ecológico ecological balance
    equilibrio de poder balance of power
    2 equilibrium, balance.
    * * *
    1 (estabilidad) balance
    2 FÍSICA equilibrium
    3 figurado (armonía) balance, harmony
    4 figurado (serenidad) poise, composure
    \
    hacer equilibrios figurado to perform a balancing act
    mantener el equilibrio to keep one's balance
    perder el equilibrio to lose one's balance
    equilibrio de poderes balance of power
    * * *
    noun m.
    balance, equilibrium
    * * *
    SM
    1) (=estabilidad) balance
    2) (=armonía) balance, equilibrium

    equilibrio de fuerzas, equilibrio de poderes — balance of power

    3) (=serenidad) level-headedness
    * * *
    1) (de fuerzas, estabilidad) balance

    perdió/mantuvo el equilibrio — he lost/kept his balance

    2) (sensatez, juicio)
    * * *
    = equilibrium, equity, trade-off [tradeoff/trade off], balance, levelling-off, levelling [leveling, -USA], compromise, equipoise, even keel.
    Nota: Nombre.
    Ex. On the one hand, the world is in a continuous state of change -- always seeking, as it were, to find the equilibrium of its natural state.
    Ex. It covers selected news reports which include the president's programme, power for youth services workers, pay equity, and equity in information services.
    Ex. There are always trade-offs between the ability and ease of online updates, speed and accessibility in searching, integration of the data base, and data-base maintenance procedures.
    Ex. The concept of such co-operation is very interesting and we continue to build a history of Stumpers activity to assess the balance of 'giving and taking'.
    Ex. A rapid growth in demand in the 1st 7 years was followed by a decline and then a levelling-off in 1982-83.
    Ex. The author examines the implications for publishers of the possible levelling of VAT on books in the UK.
    Ex. A compromise between expressive and non-expressive notation is to be found in the Second Edition of the Bliss Bibliographic Classification Scheme.
    Ex. America's present need is not heroics, but healing; not nostrums, but normalcy; not experiment, but equipoise; not submergence in internationality, but sustainment in triumphant nationality.
    Ex. That even keel, that unflappable demeanor is what made him such a steady player.
    ----
    * alterar el equilibrio = upset + the balance.
    * conseguir un equilibrio = strike + a balance.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * encontrar el equilibrio = strike + the right note.
    * encontrar un equilibrio = find + a balance.
    * equilibrio de poder = balance of power.
    * equilibrio emocional = emotional health.
    * establecer un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * mantener Algo en equilibrio = keep + Nombre + in balance.
    * mantener un equilibrio = balance, maintain + a balance, keep + a balance.
    * perder el equilibrio = lose + Posesivo + balance.
    * punto de equilibrio = break-even, break-even point.
    * restablecer el equilibrio = re-establish + the balance.
    * romper el equilibrio = tip + the scales.
    * * *
    1) (de fuerzas, estabilidad) balance

    perdió/mantuvo el equilibrio — he lost/kept his balance

    2) (sensatez, juicio)
    * * *
    = equilibrium, equity, trade-off [tradeoff/trade off], balance, levelling-off, levelling [leveling, -USA], compromise, equipoise, even keel.
    Nota: Nombre.

    Ex: On the one hand, the world is in a continuous state of change -- always seeking, as it were, to find the equilibrium of its natural state.

    Ex: It covers selected news reports which include the president's programme, power for youth services workers, pay equity, and equity in information services.
    Ex: There are always trade-offs between the ability and ease of online updates, speed and accessibility in searching, integration of the data base, and data-base maintenance procedures.
    Ex: The concept of such co-operation is very interesting and we continue to build a history of Stumpers activity to assess the balance of 'giving and taking'.
    Ex: A rapid growth in demand in the 1st 7 years was followed by a decline and then a levelling-off in 1982-83.
    Ex: The author examines the implications for publishers of the possible levelling of VAT on books in the UK.
    Ex: A compromise between expressive and non-expressive notation is to be found in the Second Edition of the Bliss Bibliographic Classification Scheme.
    Ex: America's present need is not heroics, but healing; not nostrums, but normalcy; not experiment, but equipoise; not submergence in internationality, but sustainment in triumphant nationality.
    Ex: That even keel, that unflappable demeanor is what made him such a steady player.
    * alterar el equilibrio = upset + the balance.
    * conseguir un equilibrio = strike + a balance.
    * crear un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * encontrar el equilibrio = strike + the right note.
    * encontrar un equilibrio = find + a balance.
    * equilibrio de poder = balance of power.
    * equilibrio emocional = emotional health.
    * establecer un equilibrio = establish + a balance.
    * mantener Algo en equilibrio = keep + Nombre + in balance.
    * mantener un equilibrio = balance, maintain + a balance, keep + a balance.
    * perder el equilibrio = lose + Posesivo + balance.
    * punto de equilibrio = break-even, break-even point.
    * restablecer el equilibrio = re-establish + the balance.
    * romper el equilibrio = tip + the scales.

    * * *
    A
    1 (de fuerzas, componentes) balance
    la balanza está en equilibrio the scales are (evenly) balanced
    el precario equilibrio entre los partidos the precarious balance o equilibrium between the parties
    el equilibrio entre la oferta y la demanda the balance between supply and demand
    2 (estabilidad) balance
    perdió/mantuvo el equilibrio he lost/kept his balance
    lo mantuvo en equilibrio sobre el filo del cuchillo he balanced it on the edge of the knife
    en estado de equilibrio in equilibrium
    hacer equilibrios to do a balancing act
    B
    (sensatez, juicio): es una persona de gran equilibrio she's a very level-headed o well-balanced person
    existen dudas sobre su equilibrio mental there are doubts about his mental stability
    aquella desgracia le hizo perder el equilibrio that unfortunate incident unbalanced him
    Compuestos:
    ecological balance
    ● equilibrio estable/inestable
    stable/unstable equilibrium
    neutral equilibrium
    * * *

     

    equilibrio sustantivo masculino (de fuerzas, estabilidad) balance;

    en estado de equilibrio in equilibrium
    equilibrio sustantivo masculino balance

    ' equilibrio' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ir
    - mantener
    - mareado
    - marear
    - mareo
    - perder
    English:
    balance
    - balance of power
    - equilibrium
    - footing
    - strike
    - over
    * * *
    1. [estabilidad] balance;
    Fís equilibrium;
    la balanza permanecía en equilibrio the scales were evenly balanced;
    hay equilibrio de fuerzas en el parlamento the forces are evenly balanced in the parliament;
    el gobierno busca el equilibrio presupuestario the government is seeking a balanced budget;
    mantuvo el balón en equilibrio sobre un dedo he balanced the ball on his finger;
    mantener/perder el equilibrio to keep/lose one's balance;
    hacer equilibrios to perform a balancing act;
    hacíamos verdaderos equilibrios para llegar a fin de mes we performed balancing acts to reach the end of the month
    Fís equilibrio dinámico dynamic equilibrium;
    equilibrio ecológico ecological balance;
    Fís equilibrio inestable unstable equilibrium;
    equilibrio de poder balance of power;
    equilibrio político balance of power;
    equilibrio químico chemical equilibrium
    2. [contrapeso] counterbalance, counterpoise
    3. [sensatez] composure, poise
    equilibrio mental mental equilibrium
    * * *
    m
    1 balance;
    mantener/perder el equilibrio keep/lose one’s balance equilibrio ecológico ecological balance
    2 FÍS equilibrium
    * * *
    1) : balance, equilibrium
    perder el equilibrio: to lose one's balance
    equilibrio político: balance of power
    2) : poise, aplomb
    * * *
    equilibrio n balance
    mantener el equilibrio to keep your balance [pt. & pp. kept]
    perder el equilibrio to lose your balance [pt. & pp. lost]

    Spanish-English dictionary > equilibrio

  • 13 system

    system of axes
    3-component LDV system
    3-D LDV system
    4-D system
    4-D flight-management system
    4-D guidance system
    AC electrical system
    actuation system
    aerial delivery system
    aerostat system
    AEW system
    afterburning control system
    AI-based expert system
    aileron-to-rudder system
    air bleed offtake system
    air cushion system
    air cycle system
    air data system
    air defence system
    air induction system
    air refueling system
    air traffic control system
    air-combat advisory system
    air-conditioning system
    air-path axis system
    air-turbine starting system
    airborne early warning system
    aircooling system
    aircraft reference axis system
    aircraft weight-and-balance measuring system
    aircraft-autopilot system
    aircraft-based system
    aircraft-bifilar-pendulum system
    aircraft-carried earth axis system
    aircraft-carried normal earth axis system
    aircrew escape system
    airfield lighting control system
    airframe/rotor system
    airspeed system
    alcohol-wash system
    alignment control system
    all-electronic system
    all-weather mission system
    altitude loss warning system
    angle-of-attack command system
    anti-collision system
    anti-g system
    antitorque system
    anti-icing system
    antiskid system
    area-navigation system
    ARI system
    artificial feel system
    artificial intelligence-based expert system
    artificially augmented flight control system
    ATC system
    attitude and heading reference system
    audio system
    audiovisual system
    auto-diagnosis system
    auto-hover system
    autolanding system
    automatic cambering system
    automatic trim system
    autostabilization system
    autotrim system
    axis system
    B system
    balance-fixed coordinate system
    base-excited system
    basic axis system
    beam-foundation system
    bifilar pendulum suspension system
    bladder system
    blowing system
    blowing boundary layer control system
    blown flap system
    body axis system
    body axis coordinate system
    body-fitted coordinate system
    body-fixed reference system
    boom system
    boosted flight control system
    braking system
    breathing system
    buddy-buddy refuelling system
    cabin pressurization system
    cable-mount system
    CAD system
    canopy's jettison system
    cardiovascular system
    cargo loading system
    cargo-handling system
    carrier catapult system
    cartesian axis system
    Cat III system
    central nervous system
    CGI system
    circulating oil system
    closed cooling system
    closed-loop system
    cockpit system
    cockpit management system
    collision avoidance system
    combined cooling system
    command-by-voice system
    command/vehicle system
    commercial air transportation system
    compensatory system
    computer-aided design system
    computer-assisted system
    computer-generated image system
    computer-generated visual system
    concentrated-mass system
    conflict-alert system
    conservative system
    constant bandwidth system
    constant gain system
    consultative expert system
    control system
    control augmented system
    control loader system
    cooling system
    coordinate system
    counterstealth system
    coupled system
    coupled fire and flight-control system
    covert mission system
    crew systems
    cueing system
    curvilinear coordinate system
    damped system
    data system
    data acquisition system
    data handling system
    data transfer system
    data-gathering system
    DC electrical system
    decision support system
    defensive avionics system
    deicing system
    demisting system
    departure prevention system
    deterministic system
    dual-dual redundant system
    4-D navigation system
    6-DOF motion system
    diagnosable system
    dial-a-flap system
    direct impingement starting system
    displacement control system
    display system
    display-augmented system
    divergent system
    DLC system
    dogfight system
    door-to-door system
    Doppler ground velocity system
    double-balance system
    drive system
    drive train/rotor system
    dry air refueling system
    dual-field-of-view system
    dual-wing system
    dynamic system
    early-warning system
    Earth-centered coordinate system
    earth-fixed axis system
    earth/sky/horizon projector system
    ejection system
    ejection display system
    ejection seat escape system
    ejection sequence system
    ejector exhaust system
    ejector lift system
    election safety system
    electric starting system
    electro-expulsive deicing system
    electro-impulse deicing system
    electro-vibratory deicing system
    electronic flight instrumentation system
    Elint system
    emergency power system
    emitter locator system
    EMP-protected system
    engine monitoring system
    engine-propeller system
    engine-related system
    enhanced lift system
    envelope-limiting system
    environmental control system
    escape system
    excessive pitch attitude warning system
    exhaust system
    FADEC system
    fault-tolerant system
    FBW system
    feathering system
    feedback system
    feel system
    fin axis system
    fire detection system
    fire suppression system
    fire-extinguishing system
    fire-protection system
    five-point restraint system
    fixed-structure control system
    flap system
    flap/slat system
    flash-protection system
    flexible manufacturing system
    flight control system
    flight control actuation system
    flight director system
    flight inspection system
    flight management system
    flight path system
    flight path axis system
    flight test system
    flight-test instrumentation system
    flotation system
    fluid anti-icing system
    flutter control system
    flutter margin augmentation system
    flutter suppression system
    fluttering system
    fly-by-light system
    fly-by-light control system
    fly-by-wire system
    fly-by-wire/power-by-wire control system
    foolproof system
    force-excited system
    force-feel system
    forward vision augmentation system
    fuel conservative guidance system
    fuel management system
    fuel transfer system
    full-vectoring system
    full-authority digital engine control system
    full-motion system
    full-state system
    full-time system
    fully articulated rotor system
    fuselage axis system
    g-command system
    g-cueing system
    g-limiting system
    gas generator control system
    gas turbine starting system
    global positioning system
    governing system
    ground collision avoidance system
    ground proximity warning system
    ground-axes system
    ground-fixed coordinate system
    ground-referenced navigation system
    gust alleviation system
    gust control system
    gyroscopic system
    gyroscopically coupled system
    halon fire-extinguishing system
    halon gas fire-fighting system
    hands-off system
    head-aimed system
    headup guidance system
    helmet pointing system
    helmet-mounted visual system
    hierarchical system
    high-damping system
    high-authority system
    high-lift system
    high-order system
    high-pay-off system
    high-resolution system
    higher harmonic control system
    hose-reel system
    hot-gas anti-icing system
    hub plane axis system
    hub plane reference axis system
    hub-fixed coordinate system
    hydraulic system
    hydraulic starting system
    hydropneumatic system
    hydrostatic motion system
    hysteretic system
    ice-protection system
    icing cloud spray system
    icing-protection system
    identification friend or foe system
    image generator system
    in-flight entertainment system
    incidence limiting system
    inert gas generating system
    inertial coordinate system
    inertial navigation system
    inertial reference system
    infinite-dimensional system
    information management system
    inlet boundary layer control system
    inlet control system
    input system
    instruction system
    instrument landing system
    instrumentation system
    intelligence system
    intelligent system
    interconnection system
    intermediate axis system
    intrusion alarm system
    intrusion detection system
    inverted fuel system
    landing guidance system
    large-travel motion system
    laser-based visual system
    lateral attitude control system
    lateral control system
    lateral feel system
    lateral seat restraint system
    lateral-directional stability and command augmentation system
    lead compensated system
    left-handed coordinate system
    leg restraint system
    life support system
    liferaft deployment system
    lift-distribution control system
    lighter-than-air system
    lightly damped system
    lightning protection system
    lightning sensor system
    lightning warning system
    limited-envelope flight control system
    linear vibrating system
    liquid oxygen system
    load control system
    load indication system
    local-horizon system
    loom system
    low-damping system
    low-order system
    LQG controlled system
    lubrication system
    lumped parameter system
    Mach number system
    main transmission system
    maintenance diagnostic system
    maintenance record system
    man-in-the-loop system
    man-machine system
    maneuver demand system
    maneuvering attack system
    mass-spring-dashpot system
    mass-spring-damper system
    mast-mounted sight system
    mechanical-hydraulic flight control system
    microwave landing system
    MIMO system
    mine-sweeping system
    missile system
    missile-fixed system
    mission-planning system
    mobile aircraft arresting system
    modal cancellation system
    modal suppression system
    mode-decoupling system
    model reference system
    model-based visual system
    model-following system
    modelboard system
    molecular sieve oxygen generation system
    monopulse system
    motion system
    motion generation system
    multi-input single-output system
    multi-input, multi-output system
    multimode system
    multibody system
    multidegree-of-freedom system
    multiloop system
    multiple-input single output system
    multiple-input, multiple-output system
    multiple-loop system
    multiple-redundant system
    multiply supported system
    multishock system
    multivariable system
    navigation management system
    navigation/attack system
    navigation/bomb system
    NDT system
    neuromuscular system
    night/dusk visual system
    portable aircraft arresting system
    nitrogen inerting system
    no-tail-rotor system
    nonminimum phase system
    nonoscillatory system
    nonconservative system
    normal earth-fixed axis system
    Notar system
    nozzle control system
    nuclear-hardened system
    observer-based system
    obstacle warning system
    oil system
    on-board inert gas generation system
    on-board maintenance system
    on-board oxygen generating system
    on-off system
    one degree of freedom system
    one-shot lubrication system
    open cooling system
    open seat escape system
    open-loop system
    operability system
    optic-based control system
    optimally controlled system
    orthogonal axis system
    oxygen generation system
    parachute system
    partial vectoring system
    partial vibrating system
    performance-seeking system
    perturbed system
    pilot reveille system
    pilot vision system
    pilot-aircraft system
    pilot-aircraft-task system
    pilot-in-the-loop system
    pilot-manipulator system
    pilot-plus-airplane system
    pilot-vehicle-task system
    pilot-warning system
    pilot/vehicle system
    pitch change system
    pitch compensation system
    pitch stability and command augmentation system
    pitch rate system
    pitch rate command system
    pitch rate flight control system
    pneumatic deicing system
    pneumatic ice-protection system
    pneumodynamic system
    position hold system
    power system
    power-assisted system
    power-boosted system
    powered high-lift system
    powered-lift system
    precognitive system
    pressurization system
    preview system
    probabilistically diagnosable system
    probe refuelling system
    pronated escape system
    propeller-fixed coordinate system
    propulsive lift system
    proximity warning system
    pursuit system
    push-rod control system
    quantized system
    random system
    rating system
    reconfigurable system
    rectangular coordinate system
    reduced-gain system
    reference axis system
    refuelling system
    remote augmentor lift system
    remote combustion system
    response-feedback system
    restart system
    restraint system
    restructurable control system
    retraction system
    ride-control system
    ride-quality system
    ride-quality augmentation system
    ride-smoothing system
    right-handed axis system
    right-handed coordinate system
    rigid body system
    robotic refueling system
    rod-mass system
    roll augmentation system
    roll rate command system
    rotating system
    rotor system
    rotor isolation system
    rotor-body system
    rotor-wing lift system
    route planner system
    rudder trim system
    rudder-augmentation system
    sampled-data system
    scheduling system
    schlieren system
    sea-based system
    seat restraint system
    seatback video system
    self-adjoint system
    self-contained starting system
    self-diagnosable system
    self-excited system
    self-repairing system
    self-sealing fuel system
    self-tuning system
    shadow-mask system
    shadowgraph system
    ship-fixed coordinate system
    shock system
    short-closed oil system
    sighting system
    simulation system
    simulator-based learning system
    single degree of freedom system
    single-input multiple-output system
    singularly perturbed system
    situational awareness system
    six-axis motion system
    six-degree-of-freedom motion system
    six-puck brake system
    ski-and-wheel system
    skid-to-turn system
    snapping system
    soft mounting system
    soft ride system
    sound system
    speed-stability system
    spherical coordinate system
    spin recovery system
    spin-prevention system
    spring-mass-dashpot system
    stability and control augmentation system
    stability augmentation system
    stability axis coordinate system
    stability enhancement system
    stall detection system
    stall inhibitor system
    stall protection system
    stall warning system
    starting system
    stealth system
    stochastic system
    storage and retrieval system
    store alignment system
    stores management system
    strap-down inertial system
    structural system
    structural-mode compensation system
    structural-mode control system
    structural-mode suppression system
    STT system
    suppression system
    suspension system
    tactile sensory system
    tail clearance control system
    tail warning system
    task-tailored system
    terrain-aided navigation system
    terrain-referencing system
    test system
    thermal control system
    thermal protection system
    threat-warning system
    three-axis augmentation system
    three-body tethered system
    three-control system
    three-gyro system
    through-the-canopy escape system
    thrust modulation system
    thrust-vectoring system
    tilt-fold-rotor system
    time-invariant system
    time-varying system
    tip-path-plane coordinate system
    torque command/limiting system
    tractor rocket system
    trailing cone static pressure system
    training system
    trajectory guidance system
    translation rate command system
    translational acceleration control system
    trim system
    trim tank system
    triple-load-path system
    tutoring system
    twin-dome system
    two degree of freedom system
    two-body system
    two-input system
    two-input two-output system
    two-pod system
    two-shock system
    two-step shock absorber system
    unpowered flap system
    unpowered high-lift system
    utility services management system
    vapor cycle cooling system
    variable feel system
    variable stability system
    variable structure system
    vestibular sensory system
    vibrating system
    vibration isolation system
    vibration-control system
    vibration-damping system
    video-disc-based visual system
    visor projection system
    visual system
    visual display system
    visual flying rules system
    visual sensory system
    visual simulation system
    visually coupled system
    voice-activated system
    vortex system
    vortex attenuating system
    VTOL control system
    wake-imaging system
    warning system
    water injection cooling system
    water-mist system
    water-mist spray system
    weather system
    wheel steering system
    wide angle visual system
    wind coordinate system
    wind shear system
    wind-axes system
    wind-axes coordinate system
    wind-fixed coordinate system
    wing axis system
    wing flap system
    wing sweep system
    wing-load-alleviation system
    wing-mounted system
    wing/propulsion system
    wiring system
    yaw vane system

    Авиасловарь > system

  • 14 по

    автомат загрузки по скоростному напору
    Q-feel system
    автомат имитации усилий по числу М
    Mach-feel system
    автоматическое сопровождение по дальности
    automatic range tracking
    автоматическое флюгирование по отрицательной тяге
    drag-actuated autofeathering
    автоматическое флюгирование по предельным оборотам
    overspeed-actuated autofeathering
    автомат стабилизации автопилота по числу М
    autopilot Mach lock
    автомат устойчивости по тангажу
    pitch autostabilizer
    агент по грузовым перевозкам
    cargo agent
    агент по оформлению
    handing agent
    агент по оформлению туристических перевозок
    travel agent
    агент по продаже билетов
    ticket medium
    агентство по отправке грузов воздушным транспортом
    air freight forwarder
    Агентство по пропорциональным тарифам
    Prorate Agency
    анализатор с интегрированием по времени
    time-integrating analyser
    Африканская конференция по авиационным тарифам
    African Air Tariff Conference
    аэропортовый комитет по разработке и утверждению расписания
    airport scheduling committee
    балансировать по тангажу
    trim in pitch
    балансировка по тангажу
    longitudinal trim
    билет по основному тарифу
    normal fare ticket
    блок контроля скорости пробега по земле
    ground run monitor
    весовая отдача по полезной нагрузке
    useful-to-takeoff load ratio
    взлетать по ветру
    takeoff downwind
    взлет по вертолетному
    no-run takeoff
    взлет по ветру
    downwind takeoff
    взлет по приборам
    instrument takeoff
    взлет по самолетному
    1. forward takeoff
    2. running takeoff визуальная посадка по наземным ориентирам
    visually judged landing
    визуальный заход на посадку по упрощенной схеме
    abbreviated visual approach
    визуальный полет по кругу
    visual circling
    воздушная перевозка по найму
    air operation for hire
    воздушное судно, загруженное не по установленной схеме
    improperly loaded aircraft
    воздушное судно, не сертифицированное по шуму
    nonnoise certificate aircraft
    воздушное судно по обмену
    interchanged aircraft
    восстановление по крену
    bank erection
    восстановление по тангажу
    pitch erection
    ВПП, не оборудованная для посадки по приборам
    noninstrument runway
    ВПП, оборудованная для посадки по приборам
    instrument runway
    вращаться по инерции
    run down
    вращение по инерции
    rundown
    время вылета по расписанию
    scheduled departure time
    время наземной тренировки по приборам
    instrument ground time
    время налета по приборам
    instrument flying time
    время налета по приборам на тренажере
    instrument flying simulated time
    время полета по внешнему контуру
    outbound time
    время полета по маршруту
    trip time
    время по расписанию
    due time
    выдерживание курса по курсовому радиомаяку
    localizer hold
    выдерживать курс по компасу
    hold the heading on the compass
    выдерживать направление по лучу
    follow the beam
    выполнять доработку по бюллетеню
    perform the service bulletin
    выполнять полет по курсу
    fly the heading
    высота по давлению
    pressure altitude
    высота полета по маршруту
    en-route altitude
    высота по радиовысотомеру
    radio height
    Генеральная конференция по мерам и весам
    General Conference of Weights and Measure
    генеральный агент по продаже
    general sales agent
    годность по состоянию здоровья
    medical fitness
    годность по уровню шума
    noiseworthiness
    градус по шкале Цельсия
    degree Celsius
    группа, выполняющая полет по туру
    tour group
    дальность видимости по наклонной прямой
    oblique visibility
    дальность видимости по прямой
    1. line-of-sight distance
    2. line-of-sight range дальность полета по замкнутому маршруту
    closed-circuit range
    дальность полета по прямой
    direct range
    датчик рассогласования по крену
    roll synchro transmitter
    датчик усилий по крену
    roll control force sensor
    движение по земле
    ground run
    движение по тангажу
    pitching motion
    дежурный по посадке
    boarding clerk
    действия по аэродрому при объявлении тревоги
    aerodrome alert measures
    действия по обнаружению и уходу
    see and avoid operations
    действующий технологический стандарт по шуму
    current noise technology standard
    деятельность по координации тарифов
    tariff coordinating activity
    диспетчер по загрузке
    load controller
    диспетчер по загрузке и центровке
    weight and balance controlled
    диспетчер по планированию
    planner
    диспетчер по планированию полетов
    flight planner
    длина разбега по воде
    water run length
    дозаправлять топливом на промежуточной посадке по маршруту
    refuel en-route
    доставка грузов по воздуху
    aerial cargo delivery
    доставлять по воздуху
    fly in
    доступ, регламентированный по времени
    time-ordered access
    доход по контракту
    contract revenue
    Европейская конференция по вопросам гражданской авиации
    European Civil Aviation Conference
    загрузочный механизм по скоростному напору
    Q-feel mechanism
    загрузочный механизм по числу М
    Mach-feel mechanism
    закрылок по всему размаху
    full-span flap
    занимать эшелон по нулям
    be on the level on the hour
    запас по оборотам несущего винта
    rotor speed margin
    запас по помпажу
    surging margin
    запас по сваливанию
    stall margin
    запас по ускорению
    acceleration margin
    заход на посадку, нормированный по времени
    timed approach
    заход на посадку по командам наземных станций
    advisory approach
    заход на посадку по коробочке
    rectangular traffic pattern approach
    заход на посадку по криволинейной траектории
    curved approach
    заход на посадку по кругу
    circling approach
    заход на посадку по крутой траектории
    steep approach
    заход на посадку по курсовому маяку
    localizer approach
    заход на посадку по маяку
    beam approach
    заход на посадку по обзорному радиолокатору
    surveillance radar approach
    заход на посадку по обычной схеме
    normal approach
    заход на посадку по осевой линии
    center line approach
    заход на посадку по полной схеме
    long approach
    заход на посадку по пологой траектории
    flat approach
    заход на посадку по приборам
    1. instrument approach landing
    2. instrument landing approach заход на посадку по прямому курсу
    front course approach
    заход на посадку по радиолокатору
    radar approach
    заход на посадку по сегментно-криволинейной схеме
    segmented approach
    заход на посадку после полета по кругу
    circle-to-land
    заход на посадку по укороченной схеме
    short approach
    заход на посадку по упрощенной схеме
    simple approach
    заход на посадку с прямой по приборам
    straight-in ILS-type approach
    звездное время по гринвичскому меридиану
    Greenwich sideral time
    зона захода на посадку по кругу
    circling approach area
    зона обзора по азимуту
    azimuth coverage
    изменение маршрута по желанию пассажира
    voluntary rerouting
    имитируемый полет по приборам
    simulated instrument flight
    инженер по навигационным средствам
    navaids engineer
    инженер по радиоэлектронному оборудованию
    radio engineer
    инженер по техническому обслуживанию воздушных судов
    aircraft maintenance engineer
    инженер по электронному оборудованию
    electronics engineer
    инспектор по летной годности
    airworthiness inspector
    инспектор по производству полетов
    operations inspector
    инспекция по расследованию авиационных происшествий
    investigating authority
    инструктаж по условиям полета по маршруту
    route briefing
    инструктор по навигационным средствам
    navaids instructor
    инструктор по производству полетов
    flight operations instructor
    инструкция по загрузке воздушного судна
    aircraft loading instruction
    инструкция по консервации и хранению воздушного судна
    aircraft storage instruction
    инструкция по обеспечению безопасности полетов
    air safety rules
    инструкция по производству полетов
    operation instruction
    инструкция по техническому обслуживанию
    maintenance instruction
    инструкция по эксплуатации воздушного судна
    aircraft operating instruction
    информация по воздушной трассе
    airway information
    информация по условиям посадки
    landing instruction
    испытание по уходу на второй круг
    go-around test
    испытания по замеру нагрузки в полете
    flight stress measurement tests
    испытания по полной программе
    full-scale tests
    Исследовательская группа по безопасности полетов
    Aviation Security Study Group
    истинное время по Гринвичу
    Greenwich apparent time
    исходные условия сертификации по шуму
    noise certification reference conditions
    калибровка чувствительности по звуковому давлению
    sound pressure sensitivity calibration
    категория ИКАО по обеспечению полета
    facility performance ICAO category
    классификация воздушных судов по типам
    aircraft category rating
    кодирование по опорному времени
    time reference coding
    Комиссия по авиационной метеорологии
    Commission for aeronautical Meteorology
    Комиссия по нарушению тарифов
    Breachers Commission
    Комиссия по основным системам
    Commission for basic Systems
    Комитет по авиационному шуму
    Committee on Aircraft Noise
    Комитет по безопасности полетов
    Safety Investigation Board
    Комитет по воздушным перевозкам
    1. Air Transport Committee
    2. Air Transportation Board Комитет по исследованиям звуковых ударов
    Sonic Boom Committee
    Комитет по координации частот
    Frequency Coordinating Body
    Комитет по незаконному вмешательству
    Committee on Unlawful Interference
    Комитет по охране окружающей среды от воздействия авиации
    Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
    Комитет по поощрительным тарифам
    Creative Fares Board
    Комитет по рассмотрению авиационных вопросов
    Aviation Review Committee
    Комитет по расходам
    Cost Committee
    Комитет по специальным грузовым тарифам
    Specific Commodity Rates Board
    коммерческая загрузка, ограниченная по массе
    weight limited payload
    коммерческая загрузка, ограниченная по объему
    space limited payload
    компрессор по помпажу
    compressor surge margin
    конвенция по вопросам деятельности международной гражданской авиации
    convention on international civil aviation
    конвенция по управлению воздушным движением
    air traffic convention
    консультант по вопросам обучения
    training consultant
    консультант по тренажерам
    trainers consultant
    Консультативная группа по метеообеспечению
    Meteorological Advisory Group
    консультативное сообщение по устранению конфликтной ситуации
    resolution advisory
    Консультативный комитет по управлению воздушным движением
    Air Traffic Control Advisory Committee
    Консультативный комитет по упрощению формальностей
    Facilitation Advisory Committee
    контролируемое воздушное пространство предназначенное для полетов по приборам
    instrument restricted airspace
    контроль состояния посевов по пути выполнения основного задания
    associated crop control operation
    Конференция агентства по грузовым перевозкам
    Cargo Agency Conference
    Конференция агентств по пассажирским перевозкам
    Passenger Agency Conference
    Конференция по валютным вопросам
    Currency Conference
    Конференция по вопросам обслуживания пассажиров
    Passenger Services Conference
    Конференция по координации тарифов
    Tariff Co-ordinating Conference
    координационный центр по спасанию
    rescue coordination center
    коррекция траектории по полученной информации
    reply-to-track correlation
    кресло, расположенное по направлению полета
    forward facing seat
    курс захода на посадку по приборам
    instrument approach course
    курс подготовки по утвержденной программе
    approved training course
    курс по локсодромии
    rhumb-line course
    курс по маяку
    beacon course
    курс по радиомаяку
    localizer course
    курсы подготовки пилотов к полетам по приборам
    instrument pilot school
    летать по ветру
    fly downwind
    летать по глиссадному лучу
    fly the glide-slope beam
    летать по кругу
    1. circularize
    2. fly round 3. fly the circle летать по кругу над аэродромом
    circle the aerodrome
    летать по курсу
    1. fly on the heading
    2. fly on the course летать по локсодромии
    fly the rhumb line
    летать по маршруту
    fly en-route
    летать по ортодромии
    fly the great circle
    летать по приборам
    1. fly on instruments
    2. fly by instruments летать по приборам в процессе тренировок
    fly under screen
    летать по прямой
    fly straight
    лететь по лучу
    fly the beam
    летная полоса, оборудованная для полетов по приборам
    instrument strip
    линия полета по курсу
    on-course line
    линия пути по локсодромии
    rhumb-line track
    линия пути по схеме с двумя спаренными разворотами
    race track
    Международная комиссия по аэронавигации
    International commission for Air Navigation
    Международная комиссия по освещению
    Commission on Illumination
    международное сотрудничество по вопросам летной годности
    international collaboration in airworthiness
    меры по обеспечению безопасности
    safety control measures
    меры по предупреждению пожара
    fire precautions
    меры по снижению шума
    noise abatement measures
    метеоданные по аэродрому
    aerodrome forecast material
    метеосводка по трассе полета
    airway climatic data
    методика сертификации по шуму
    noise certification procedure
    метод продажи по наличию свободных мест
    space available policy
    механизм триммерного эффекта по тангажу
    pitch trim actuator
    механизм усилий по скоростному напору
    Q-feel unit
    минимальная высота полета по кругу
    minimum circling procedure height
    минимальная высота по маршруту
    minimum en-route altitude
    минимум для полетов по кругу
    circling minima
    набирать высоту при полете по курсу
    climb on the course
    набор высоты по крутой траектории
    steep climb
    набор высоты по установившейся схеме
    proper climb
    наведение по азимуту
    azimuth guidance
    наведение по азимуту при заходе на посадку
    approach azimuth guidance
    наведение по глиссаде
    glide-slope guidance
    наведение по глиссаде при заходе на посадку
    approach slope guidance
    наведение по клиренсу
    clearance guidance
    наведение по лучу
    1. beam homing
    2. beam follow guidance 3. beam riding наведение по лучу радиолокационной станции
    radar beam riding
    наведение по отраженному лучу
    back beam track guidance
    наведение по углу
    angle guidance
    навигация по визуальным ориентирам
    contact navigation
    навигация по заданным путевым углам
    angle navigation
    навигация по линии равных азимутов
    constant-bearing navigation
    навигация по наземным ориентирам
    1. landmark navigation
    2. terrestrial navigation 3. ground reference navigation навигация по ортодромии
    waypoint navigation
    навигация по условным координатам
    grid navigation
    наставление по управлению воздушным движением
    air traffic guide
    не по курсу
    off-course
    неустойчивость по крену
    roll instability
    неустойчивость по тангажу
    pitch instability
    облако, напоминающее по виду наковальню
    anvil cloud
    обобщенные характеристики по шуму
    generalized noise characteristics
    оборудование для полетов по приборам
    blind flight equipment
    обслуживание по смешанному классу
    mixed service
    обслуживание по туристическому классу
    1. economy class service
    2. coach service 3. no frills service обтекать по потоку
    streamwise
    обтекать хорду по потоку
    stream-wise chord
    Объединенная конференция по грузовым тарифам
    Composite cargo Traffic Conference
    Объединенная конференция по координации грузовым перевозкам
    Composite cargo Tariff Coordinating Conference
    Объединенная конференция по координации пассажирских тарифов
    Composite Passenger Tariff Co-ordinating Conference
    Объединенная конференция по пассажирским перевозкам
    Composite Passenger Conference
    огни по требованию
    lights on request
    ограничение по боковому ветру
    cross-wind limit
    ограничение по времени
    time limit
    ограничение по массе
    weight limitation
    ограничение по скорости полета
    air-speed limitation
    ограничения по загрузке
    loading restrictions
    ограничения по летной годности
    airworthiness limitations
    ограничивать по состоянию здоровья
    decrease in medical fitness
    операции по подготовке рейса к вылету
    departure operations
    операции по спасению
    rescue operations
    операция по рассеиванию тумана
    fog dispersal operation
    операция по спасению
    rescue mission
    опережение по фазе
    phase advance
    определение местонахождения воздушного судна по звездам
    astrofix
    определение местоположения по наземным ориентирам
    visual ground fixing
    определение местоположения по пеленгу одной станции
    one-station fixing
    определение местоположения по пройденному пути и курсу
    range-bearing fixing
    ориентировка ВПП по магнитному меридиану
    magnetic orientation of runway
    ориентировка по радиомаяку
    radio-range orientation
    остановка по расписанию
    sheduled stopping
    Отдел по соблюдению тарифов
    Compliance Department
    отклонение по дальности
    range deviation
    отклонение по крену
    bank displacement
    отставание по времени
    time lag
    отставание по фазе
    phase lag
    ошибка по дальности
    range error
    параметр потока, критический по шуму
    noise-critical flow parameter
    пассажир по полному тарифу
    adult
    пеленг по гироприбору
    gyro bearing
    перевозка грузов по воздуху
    air freight lift
    перевозка пассажиров по контракту
    contract tour
    перевозка по специальному тарифу
    unit toll transportation
    перевозки по тарифу туристического класса
    coach traffic
    персонал по обеспечению полетов
    flight operations personnel
    персонал по оформлению билетов
    ticketing personnel
    пикирование по спирали
    spiral dive
    пилотировать по приборам
    pilot by reference to instruments
    планирование воздушного судна по спирали
    aircraft spiral glide
    план полета по приборам
    instrument flight plan
    по азимуту
    in azimuth
    поверхность управления по всему размаху
    full-span control surface
    (напр. крыла) по ветру
    downwind
    по всему размаху
    tip
    погода по метеосводке
    reported weather
    погрешность отсчета по углу места
    elevation error
    подводить по трубопроводу
    deliver by pipe
    подготовка для полетов по приборам
    instrument flight training
    подготовка по утвержденной программе
    approved training
    по запросу
    1. on-request
    2. on request полет по дополнительному маршруту
    extra section flight
    полет по заданной траектории
    desired path flight
    полет по заданному маршруту
    desired track flight
    полет по замкнутому кругу
    closed-circuit flight
    полет по замкнутому маршруту
    round-trip
    полет по индикации на стекле
    head-up flight
    полет по инерции
    1. coasting flight
    2. coast полет по коробочке
    box-pattern flight
    полет по круговому маршруту
    1. round-trip flight
    2. circling полет по кругу
    circuit-circling
    полет по кругу в районе аэродрома
    aerodrome traffic circuit operation
    полет по кругу над аэродромом
    1. aerodrome circling
    2. aerodrome circuit-circling полет по курсу
    flight on heading
    полет по локсодромии
    rhumb-line flight
    полет по маршруту
    1. en-route operation
    2. en-route flight полет по маякам ВОР
    VOR course flight
    полет по наземным ориентирам
    visual navigation flight
    полет по наземным ориентирам или по командам наземных станций
    reference flight
    полет по полному маршруту
    entire flight
    полет по приборам
    1. instrument flight rules operation
    2. instrument flight 3. blind flight 4. head-down flight полет по приборам, обязательный для данной зоны
    compulsory IFR flight
    полет по размеченному маршруту
    point-to-point flight
    полет по расписанию
    1. scheduled flight
    2. regular flight полет по сигналам с земли
    directed reference flight
    полет по условным меридианам
    grid flight
    полет по установленным правилам
    flight under the rules
    полеты по воздушным трассам
    airways flying
    полеты по изобаре
    pressure flying
    полеты по контрольным точкам
    fix-to-fix flying
    полеты по кругу
    circuit flying
    полеты по наземным естественным ориентирам
    terrain fly
    полеты по низким метеоминимумам
    low weather operations
    полеты по обратному лучу
    back beam flying
    полеты по ортодромии
    great-circle flying
    полеты по прямому лучу
    front beam flying
    полеты по радиолучу
    radio-beam fly
    положение, определенное по радиолокатору
    radar track position
    положение по направлению трассы
    along-track position
    положение по тангажу
    pitch attitude
    по оси воздушного судна
    on aircraft center line
    по полету
    looking forward
    по размаху
    spanwise
    порядок действий по тревоге на аэродроме
    aerodrome alerting procedure
    посадка по вертолетному типу
    helicopter-type landing
    посадка по ветру
    downwind landing
    посадка по командам с земли
    1. ground-controlled landing
    2. talk-down landing посадка по приборам
    1. instrument landing
    2. blind landing посадка по техническим причинам
    technical stop
    Постоянный комитет по летно-техническим характеристикам
    Standing Committee of Performance
    по часовой стрелке
    clockwise
    правила полета по кругу
    circuit rules
    правила полетов по приборам
    instrument flight rules
    превышение по высоте
    gain in altitude
    предварительные меры по обеспечению безопасности полетов
    advance arrangements
    предкрылок по всему размаху
    full-span slat
    (крыла) предоставляется по запросу
    available on request
    предполетный инструктаж по метеообстановке
    flight weather briefing
    предпочтительная по уровню шума ВПП
    noise preferential runway
    предпочтительный по уровню шума маршрут
    noise preferential route
    предупреждение по аэродрому
    aerodrome warning
    преобразователь сигнала по тангажу
    pitch transformer
    пробегать по полному маршруту
    cover the route
    проведение работ по снижению высоты препятствий для полетов
    obstacle clearing
    проверка прилегания по краске
    transferred marking
    прогноз по авиатрассе
    airway forecast
    прогноз по аэродрому
    aerodrome forecast
    прогноз по высоте
    height forecast
    прогноз по маршруту
    air route forecast
    прогноз по региону
    regional forecast
    программа сертификации по шуму
    noise certification scheme
    продажа билетов по принципу наличия свободных мест
    space available basis
    продолжительность по запасу топлива
    fuel endurance
    прокладка маршрута по угловым координатам
    angle tracking
    пропускная способность по числу посадок
    landing capacity
    противопожарное патрулирование по пути выполнения основного задания
    associated fire control operation
    пульт управления по радио
    radio control board
    работы по техническому обслуживанию
    maintenance operations
    Рабочая группа по разработке основных эксплуатационных требований
    Basic Operational Requirements Group
    развертка по дальности
    range scanning
    разворачивать по ветру
    turn downwind
    разворот по приборам
    instrument turn
    разворот по стандартной схеме
    standard rate turn
    разворот по установленной схеме
    procedure turn
    разница в тарифах по классам
    class differential
    разрешающая способность по дальности
    range resolution
    разрешение в процессе полета по маршруту
    en-route clearance
    разрешение на полет по приборам
    instrument clearance
    распределение давления по крылу
    wing pressure plotting
    распределение по размаху крыла
    spanwise distribution
    распределение по хорде
    chordwise distribution
    распределение расходов по маршрутам
    cost allocation to routes
    расстояние по ортодромии
    great-circle distance
    реакция по крену
    roll response
    регламентирование по времени
    timing
    регулировать по высоте
    adjust for height
    режим работы автопилота по заданному курсу
    autopilot heading mode
    рейс с обслуживанием по первому классу
    first-class flight
    рекомендации по обеспечению безопасности полетов
    safety recommendations
    рекомендации по стандартам, практике и правилам
    recommendations for standards, practices and procedures
    руководство по обеспечению безопасности
    safety regulations
    руководство по полетам воздушных судов гражданской авиации
    civil air regulations
    руководство по предупреждению столкновений над морем
    regulations for preventing collisions over sea
    руководство по производству полетов в зоне аэродрома
    aerodrome rules
    руководство по технической эксплуатации воздушного судна
    aircraft maintenance guide
    руководство по управлению полетами
    flight control fundamentals
    руководство по упрощению формальностей
    guide to facilitation
    руление по аэродрому
    ground taxi operation
    руление по воздуху
    air taxiing
    руление по воздуху к месту взлета
    aerial taxiing to takeoff
    рыскание по курсу
    hunting
    сбор за услуги по оценке
    valuation charge
    сводка по аэродрому
    aerodrome report
    сводка погоды по данным радиолокационного наблюдения
    radar weather report
    связь по запросу с борта
    air-initiated communication
    связь по обеспечению регулярности полетов
    flight regularity communication
    сдвиг по фазе
    phase shift
    сектор наведения по клиренсу
    clearance guidance sector
    Секция расчетов по вопросам технической помощи
    Technical Assistance Accounts section
    (ИКАО) Секция расчетов по регулярной программе
    Regular Programme Accounts section
    (ИКАО) сертификат воздушного судна по шуму
    aircraft noise certificate
    сертификационный стандарт по шуму
    noise certification standard
    сертификация по шуму на взлетном режиме
    take-off noise
    сигнал полета по курсу
    on-course signal
    сигнал синхронизации по времени
    synchronized time signal
    система балансировки по числу М
    Mach trim system
    система блокировки управления по положению реверса
    thrust reverser interlock system
    система наведения по лучу
    1. beam-rider system
    2. guide beam system система наведения по приборам
    instrument guidance system
    система наведения по сканирующему лучу
    scanning beam guidance system
    система наведения по углу
    angle guidance system
    система навигации по наземным ориентирам
    ground-referenced navigation system
    система посадки по лучу маяка
    beam approach beacon system
    система посадки по приборам
    instrument landing system
    система сборов по фактической массе
    weight system
    (багажа или груза) скольжение по воде
    equaplaning
    скорость набора высоты при полете по маршруту
    en-route climb speed
    скорость по тангажу
    rate of pitch
    следовать по заданному курсу
    pursue
    служба обеспечения прогнозами по маршруту
    route forecast service
    служба по изучению рынка
    marketing service
    (воздушных перевозок) снижение по спирали
    spiral descent
    снос определенный по радиолокатору
    radar drift
    советник по авиационным вопросам
    aviation adviser
    советник по вопросам гражданской авиации
    civil aviation adviser
    советник по проектированию и строительству аэродромов
    aerodrome engineering instructor
    Совет по авиационным спутникам
    Aeronautical Satellite Council
    Совместный комитет по специальным грузовым тарифам
    Joint service Commodity Rates Board
    соглашение по вопросам летной годности
    arrangement for airworthiness
    соглашение по пассажирским и грузовым тарифам
    fares and rates agreement
    соглашение по прямому транзиту
    direct transit agreement
    соглашение по тарифам
    tariff agreement
    состояние готовности аэродрома по тревоге
    aerodrome alert status
    (состояние готовности служб аэродрома по тревоге) специализированный отдел по расследованию происшествий
    accident investigation division
    специалист по ремонту
    repairman
    специалист по ремонту воздушных судов
    aircraft repairman
    специалист по сборке
    rigger
    справочник по аэродромам
    aerodrome directory
    справочник по аэропортам
    airport directory
    средства обеспечения полетов по приборам
    nonvisual aids
    стандартная система управления заходом на посадку по лучу
    standard beam approach system
    стандартная схема вылета по приборам
    standard instrument departure
    стандартная схема посадки по приборам
    standard instrument arrival
    стандарт по шуму для дозвуковых самолетов
    subsonic noise standard
    степень помех по отношению к несущей частоте
    carrier-to-noise ratio
    строить по лицензии
    construct under license
    схема визуального полета по кругу
    visual circling procedure
    схема захода на посадку по командам с земли
    ground-controlled approach procedure
    схема захода на посадку по коробочке
    rectangular approach traffic pattern
    схема захода на посадку по приборам
    1. instrument approach chart
    2. instrument approach procedure схема полета по кругу
    1. circuit pattern
    2. circling procedure схема полета по маршруту
    en-route procedure
    схема полета по приборам
    instrument flight procedure
    схема полета по приборам в зоне ожидания
    instrument holding procedure
    схема полетов по кругу
    traffic circuit
    схема руления по аэродрому
    aerodrome taxi circuit
    тарировка по времени
    time calibration
    тарировка по дальности
    range calibration
    тарировка по числу М
    Mach number calibration
    тариф на полет по замкнутому кругу
    round trip fare
    тариф по контракту
    contract rate
    тариф по незамкнутому круговому маршруту
    open-jaw fare
    температура по шкале Цельсия
    Celsius temperature
    точность ориентировки по точечному ориентиру
    pinpoint accuracy
    траектория взлета, сертифицированная по шуму
    noise certification takeoff flight path
    траектория захода на посадку по азимуту
    azimuth approach path
    траектория захода на посадку по лучу курсового маяка
    localizer approach track
    траектория захода на посадку, сертифицированная по шуму
    noise certification approach path
    траектория полета по маршруту
    en-route flight path
    траектория полетов по низким минимумам погоды
    low weather minima path
    транспортировка по воздуху
    shipment by air
    трансформатор сигнала по крену
    roll transformer
    трансформатор сигнала по курсу
    yaw transformer
    трафарет с инструкцией по применению
    instruction plate
    требования по метеоусловиям
    meteorological requirements
    требования по ограничению высоты препятствий
    obstacle limitation requirements
    требования по снижению шума
    noise reduction requirements
    тренажер для подготовки к полетам по приборам
    instrument flight trainer
    тяга, регулируемая по величине и направлению
    vectored thrust
    угол рассогласования по крену
    bank synchro error angle
    удостоверение на право полета по авиалинии
    airline certificate
    удостоверение на право полета по приборам
    instrument certificate
    указания по выполнению руления
    taxi instruction
    указания по порядку ожидания
    holding instruction
    указания по управлению воздушным движением
    air-traffic control instruction
    указания по условиям эксплуатации в полете
    inflight operational instructions
    указатель отклонения от курса по радиомаяку
    localizer deviation pointer
    уполномоченный по расследованию
    investigator-in-charge
    управление по крену
    1. roll guidance
    2. roll control управление по угловому отклонению
    angular position control
    управление по углу рыскания
    yaw control
    управляемый по радио
    radio-controlled
    условия по заданному маршруту
    conditions on the route
    условия, по сложности превосходящие квалификацию пилота
    conditions beyond the experience
    условия сертификационных испытаний по шуму
    noise certification test conditions
    устанавливать воздушное судно по оси
    align the aircraft with the center line
    устанавливать воздушное судно по оси ВПП
    align the aircraft with the runway
    установленная схема вылета по приборам
    standard instrument departure chart
    установленная схема полета по кругу
    fixed circuit
    установленная схема ухода на второй круг по приборам
    instrument missed procedure
    устойчивость по крену
    1. rolling stability
    2. lateral stability устойчивость по скорости
    speed stability
    устойчивость по тангажу
    1. pitching stability
    2. pitch stability устойчивость по углу атаки
    angle-of-attack stability
    уточнение плана полета по сведениям, полученным в полете
    inflight operational planning
    уходить на второй круг по заданной схеме
    take a missed-approach procedure
    уход платформы по курсу
    platform drift in azimuth
    фирма по производству воздушных судов
    aircraft company
    флюгирование по отрицательному крутящему моменту
    negative torque feathering
    характеристика набора высоты при полете по маршруту
    en-route climb performance
    характеристика по наддуву
    manifold pressure characteristic
    характеристики наведения по линии пути
    track-defining characteristics
    характеристики по шуму
    noise characteristics
    чартерный рейс по заказу отдельной организации
    single-entity charter
    чартерный рейс по незамкнутому маршруту
    open-jaw charter
    чартерный рейс по объявленной программе
    programmed charter
    чартерный рейс по установленному маршруту
    on-route charter
    чувствительность к отклонению по сигналам курсового маяка
    lokalizer displacement sensitivity
    чувствительность по давлению
    pressure sensitivity
    чувствительность по курсу
    course sensitivity
    шкала корректировки по тангажу
    pitch trim scale
    шкала отклонения от курса по радиомаяку
    localizer deviation scale
    школа подготовки специалистов по управлению воздушным движением
    air traffic school
    экзамен по летной подготовке
    flight examination
    экспедитор по отправке грузов
    freight consolidator
    эксперт по вопросам ведения документации
    procedures document expert
    эксперт по контролю за качеством
    quality control expert
    эксперт по летной годности
    airworthiness expert
    эксперт по обслуживанию воздушного движения
    air traffic services expert
    эксперт по обучению пилотов
    pilot training expert
    эксперт по производству налетов
    flight operations expert
    эксперт по радиолокаторам
    radar expert
    эксперт по техническому обслуживанию
    maintenance expert
    этап полета по маршруту
    en-route flight phase
    эшелонирование по курсу
    track separation
    эшелонирование по усмотрению пилота
    own separation
    эшелонировать по высоте
    stack up

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > по

  • 15 крыло

    крыло сущ
    wing
    аэродинамический гребень на крыле
    wing fence
    аэродинамическое чистое крыло
    clean wing
    аэроупругость крыла
    wing aeroelasticity
    базовая линия крыла
    wing base line
    балансировочный нож на задней кромке крыла
    wing trim strip
    верхнее крыло
    upper wing
    верхняя поверхность крыла
    wing upper surface
    взаимовлияние крыла и фюзеляжа
    body-wing interference
    винтовой подъемник крыла
    wing screw jack
    вихрь от законцовки крыла
    wing-tip vortex
    воздушное судно с верхним расположением крыла
    high-wing aircraft
    воздушное судно с неподвижным крылом
    fixed-wing aircraft
    воздушное судно с низким расположением крыла
    low-wing aircraft
    воздушное судно со складывающимся крылом
    folding wing aircraft
    воздушное судно со средним расположением крыла
    mid-wing aircraft
    воздушное судно с треугольным крылом
    delta-wing aircraft
    воздушное судно с убранной механизацией крыла
    clean aircraft
    воздушное судно схемы летающее крыло
    1. all-wing aircraft
    2. tailless aircraft выводить воздушное судно из сваливания на крыло
    unstall the aircraft
    выдвижная механизация крыла
    wing extendable devices
    вынос крыла биплана
    stagger
    высокорасположенное крыло
    1. high wing
    2. high-wing 3. shoulder wing высокоэффективная механизация крыла
    high-lift wing devices
    габаритный огонь крыла
    wing clearance light
    геометрическая крутка крыла
    wing geometric twist
    датчик критических углов атаки крыла
    wing stall sensor
    датчик скольжения на крыло
    side-slip sensor
    двигатель, расположенный в крыле
    in-wing mounted
    двигатель, установленный на крыле
    on-wing mounted engine
    двухлонжеронное крыло
    two-spar wing
    дивергенция крыла
    wing divergence
    жесткое крыло
    rigid wing
    жесткость крыла на кручение
    1. wing torsional stiffness
    2. wing torsion stiffness завал на крыло
    1. wing dropping
    2. wing drop задний лонжерон крыла
    rear wing spar
    законцовка крыла
    1. wing tip
    2. wingtip заливная горловина на крыле
    overwing filler
    зализ крыла
    wing fillet
    зализ крыла с фюзеляжем
    wing-to-fuselage fillet
    запас высоты законцовки крыла
    wing tip clearance
    заправка топливом сверху крыла
    overwing fueling
    изгибающий момент крыла
    wing bending moment
    изменяемая стреловидность крыла
    wing variable sweep
    каркас крыла
    wind main frame
    ключ для стыковки крыла
    wing butting wrench
    корневая часть крыла
    wing root
    кривизна крыла
    wing curvature
    крутка крыла
    wing twist
    крутящий момент крыла
    wing torsional moment
    крыло бесконечного размаха
    infinite-span wing
    крыло изменяемой геометрии
    variable-geometry wing
    крыло изменяемой крыло
    movable wing
    крыло изменяемой стреловидности
    variable-swept wing
    крыло кессонной конструкции
    torsion box wing
    крыло малого удлинения
    low aspect wing
    крыло обратной стреловидности
    1. forward-swept wing
    2. sweptforward wing крыло переменной стреловидности
    variable-sweep wing
    крыло прямой стреловидности
    sweptback wing
    крыло самолета
    mainplane
    крыло с изменяемой площадью
    variable-area wing
    крыло с изменяемым углом установки
    variable-incidence wing
    крыло с механизацией для обеспечения большей подъемной силы
    high-lift devices wing
    крыло с отрицательным углом поперечного ВЭ
    anhedral wing
    крыло с положительным углом поперечного ВЭ
    dihedral wing
    крыло с работающей обшивкой
    stressed-skin wing
    крыло с управляемой циркуляцией
    augmentor wing
    крыло с управляемым пограничным слоем
    backswept boundary layer controlled wing
    крыло типа обратная чайка
    inverted-gull wing
    крыло типа чайка
    gull wing
    крышка заливной горловины на крыле
    overwing filler cap
    линия ограничения безопасного расстояния до конца крыла
    wing tip clearance line
    линия разъема крыла
    wing split line
    линия хорды крыла
    wing chord line
    лобовое сопротивление крыла
    wing drag
    ложемент под крыло
    wing cradle
    лонжерон крыла
    wing spar
    люк аварийного выхода на крыло
    overwing emergency exit
    люк в крыле
    wing manhole
    мат на крыло
    wing walk mat
    место на крыле для выполнения технического обслуживания
    overwing walkway
    механизация крыла
    1. wing-flap system
    2. wing devices 3. lift devices моноплан с высокорасположенным крылом
    high-wing monoplane
    моноплан с низко расположенным крылом
    low-wing monoplane
    моноплан со среднерасположенным крылом
    midwing monoplane
    нагрузка на крыло
    wing load
    над крылом
    over the wing
    наплыв крыла
    wing dogtooth extension
    неподвижное крыло
    fixed wing
    неразрезной лонжерон крыла
    continuous wing beam
    несущая способность крыла
    wing bearing capacity
    нижнее крыло
    lower wing
    нижняя поверхность крыла
    wing lower surface
    низкорасположенное крыло
    low wing
    носок крыла
    wing leading edge
    обтекание крыла
    flow about wing
    обшивка крыла
    wing covering
    однолонжеронное крыло
    1. single-spar wing
    2. monospar wing одностоечное крыло
    single-bay wing
    остов крыла
    wing skeleton
    ось складывания крыла
    wing-fold axis
    отверстие для отсоса пограничного слоя на крыле
    boundary layer bleed perforation
    относительное сужение крыла
    wing taper ratio
    относительное удлинение крыла
    wing aspect ratio
    отсек кессона крыла
    wing box
    отстыковывать крыло
    detach the wing
    отъемная часть крыла
    outer wing
    панель кессона крыла
    wing box panel
    передний лонжерон крыла
    front wing spar
    площадь крыла
    wing area
    площадь крыла, включая подфюзеляжную часть
    gross wing area
    поворотное крыло
    pivoting wing
    подъемная сила крыла
    wing lift
    подъемник крыла
    wing jack
    покачивание крыльями
    rocking wings
    поляра крыла
    wing polar
    пояс лонжерона крыла
    wing spar cap
    продольное колебание крыла
    wing longitudinal oscillation
    продольный изгиб крыла
    wing buckling
    противообледенительная система крыла
    wing anti-icing system
    профиль крыла
    1. wing shape
    2. wing section прямая стреловидность крыла
    sweepback
    прямоугольное крыло
    rectangular wing
    разгрузка крыла
    wing bending relief
    размах крыла
    wing span
    разность углов заклинения крыльев биплана
    decalage
    разъем крыла
    wing joint
    распределение давления по крылу
    wing pressure plotting
    распределение по размаху крыла
    spanwise distribution
    расчаленное крыло
    braced wing
    расчетная площадь крыла
    design wing area
    свободнонесущее крыло
    cantilever wing
    серповидное крыло
    crescent wing
    складывающееся крыло
    folding wing
    скольжение на крыло
    1. squashing
    2. wing slide скользить на крыло
    squash
    (о воздушном судне) скорость захода на посадку с убранной механизацией крыла
    no-flap - no-slat approach speed
    с крыльями
    winged
    с низко расположенным крылом
    low-wing
    соединение крыла с фюзеляжем
    wing-to-fuselage joint
    сопровождающий у конца крыла
    wing walker
    среднерасположенное крыло
    mid wing
    срез законцовки крыла
    wig-tip rake
    статический разрядник крыла
    wing static discharger
    створка щели крыла
    wing slot door
    стреловидное крыло
    1. swept wing
    2. arrow-type wing стык консолей крыла
    wing outer panels joint
    стыковка крыла
    wing butting
    сужение крыла
    wing taper
    тенденция сваливания на крыло
    wing heaviness
    топливный бак, устанавливаемый на конце крыла
    wingtip fuel tank
    топливный отсек крыла
    wing integral fuel tank
    трапециевидное крыло
    tapered wing
    треугольное крыло
    delta wing
    убирать механизацию крыла воздушного судна
    clean the aircraft
    угол заклинения крыла
    wing setting angle
    угол стреловидности крыла
    wing sweep angle
    узел крепления крыла
    wing attachment fitting
    узел крепления крыла к фюзеляжу
    wing-to-fuselage attachment
    управляемое крыло
    all-moving wing
    условия обледенения крыла
    wing icing conditions
    установившееся обтекание крыла воздушным потоком
    steady airflow about the wing
    установка угла положения крыла
    wing setting
    устойчивость при скольжении на крыло
    side slipping stability
    устройство для уменьшения подъемной силы крыла
    lift dump device
    форма крыла в плане
    wing planform
    хвостовой зализ крыла
    wing tail fillet
    хорда крыла
    wing chord
    центроплан крыла
    center wing section
    щелевое крыло
    slotted wing
    щель крыла
    wing slot
    (для обдува) эллиптическое крыло
    elliptical wing

    Русско-английский авиационный словарь > крыло

  • 16 TS

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Tissue Specificity, trading securities
    2) Компьютерная техника: Telecommunication System, Temporary Storage
    4) Американизм: Technical Sergeant, Tentative Solution
    8) Шутливое выражение: Twisted Sister
    9) Химия: Temperature Sensitive
    11) Религия: Tainted Souls, Two Spirit
    12) Юридический термин: Trustee Sale
    13) Бухгалтерия: Total Surplus
    14) Страхование: Timesheet
    15) Ветеринария: Teratology Society
    16) Грубое выражение: Terribly Sexy, Tiny Sex, Tortured Scrotum, Tough Shit
    17) Политика: Tunisia
    18) Телекоммуникации: Telecom Server, Tip And Sleeve, Tip Sleeve
    19) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Tunisia), Telegraph System, Telemetering System, Time Stamp, Top Secret (security classification), Top Secret, Trainer Subsystem, Training Ship, Training Simulator, Transattack Survivability, Transmitter Segment, Transport Support, Tsonga, Tunisia (NATO country code), taper shank, tile base, time sharing, time switch, tool shed, tool steel, total slack, tough situation, transonic, tube sheet, typescript, test specification (number), транссексуал (transsexual), Tough Stuff, Transmission Subsystem, tricuspid stenosis
    22) Электроника: The Static, Time Step, Transparent Substrate
    23) Вычислительная техника: Traffic Shaping, transport stream, TriState (IC)
    24) Нефть: surface temperature, teflon steel, temperature switches, tray spacing, кровля солевого пласта (top salt), технические условия (technical specifications), технические условия на проведение испытаний
    25) Банковское дело: условия кредитования (term sheet( ЮКБ))
    27) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Sweet
    28) Фирменный знак: Thompson And Strickland, Tri Star
    29) СМИ: The Same
    30) Деловая лексика: Task Starts, Trade Services
    31) Бурение: песчаник тар-спрингс (Tar Springs; свита отдела честер миссисипской системы)
    32) Образование: Traffic School, Training Session
    33) Сетевые технологии: Tell Server, Terminal Server, Transaction Set, Transaction Systems
    35) Автоматика: tool sensor
    36) Пластмассы: Thermoplastics Screw
    37) Океанография: The Surface, Tropical Storm
    38) Химическое оружие: technical secretariat
    39) Расширение файла: Tape Status
    40) Нефть и газ: equipment test system
    41) Антарктика: Сила цели
    42) Электротехника: transformer substation, transient stability
    43) Фантастика Time Stalkers
    44) Имена и фамилии: Terminator Schwarzenegger, The Shark, Thomas Stearns
    45) Высокочастотная электроника: timeslot
    46) Должность: Tech Support, Telecommunication Science
    47) Чат: Terribly Sad
    48) Правительство: Treasure State
    49) Хобби: Terribly Scarce
    50) Международная торговля: Trade Specialist

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > TS

  • 17 Ts

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Tissue Specificity, trading securities
    2) Компьютерная техника: Telecommunication System, Temporary Storage
    4) Американизм: Technical Sergeant, Tentative Solution
    8) Шутливое выражение: Twisted Sister
    9) Химия: Temperature Sensitive
    11) Религия: Tainted Souls, Two Spirit
    12) Юридический термин: Trustee Sale
    13) Бухгалтерия: Total Surplus
    14) Страхование: Timesheet
    15) Ветеринария: Teratology Society
    16) Грубое выражение: Terribly Sexy, Tiny Sex, Tortured Scrotum, Tough Shit
    17) Политика: Tunisia
    18) Телекоммуникации: Telecom Server, Tip And Sleeve, Tip Sleeve
    19) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Tunisia), Telegraph System, Telemetering System, Time Stamp, Top Secret (security classification), Top Secret, Trainer Subsystem, Training Ship, Training Simulator, Transattack Survivability, Transmitter Segment, Transport Support, Tsonga, Tunisia (NATO country code), taper shank, tile base, time sharing, time switch, tool shed, tool steel, total slack, tough situation, transonic, tube sheet, typescript, test specification (number), транссексуал (transsexual), Tough Stuff, Transmission Subsystem, tricuspid stenosis
    22) Электроника: The Static, Time Step, Transparent Substrate
    23) Вычислительная техника: Traffic Shaping, transport stream, TriState (IC)
    24) Нефть: surface temperature, teflon steel, temperature switches, tray spacing, кровля солевого пласта (top salt), технические условия (technical specifications), технические условия на проведение испытаний
    25) Банковское дело: условия кредитования (term sheet( ЮКБ))
    27) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Sweet
    28) Фирменный знак: Thompson And Strickland, Tri Star
    29) СМИ: The Same
    30) Деловая лексика: Task Starts, Trade Services
    31) Бурение: песчаник тар-спрингс (Tar Springs; свита отдела честер миссисипской системы)
    32) Образование: Traffic School, Training Session
    33) Сетевые технологии: Tell Server, Terminal Server, Transaction Set, Transaction Systems
    35) Автоматика: tool sensor
    36) Пластмассы: Thermoplastics Screw
    37) Океанография: The Surface, Tropical Storm
    38) Химическое оружие: technical secretariat
    39) Расширение файла: Tape Status
    40) Нефть и газ: equipment test system
    41) Антарктика: Сила цели
    42) Электротехника: transformer substation, transient stability
    43) Фантастика Time Stalkers
    44) Имена и фамилии: Terminator Schwarzenegger, The Shark, Thomas Stearns
    45) Высокочастотная электроника: timeslot
    46) Должность: Tech Support, Telecommunication Science
    47) Чат: Terribly Sad
    48) Правительство: Treasure State
    49) Хобби: Terribly Scarce
    50) Международная торговля: Trade Specialist

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Ts

  • 18 ts

    1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Tissue Specificity, trading securities
    2) Компьютерная техника: Telecommunication System, Temporary Storage
    4) Американизм: Technical Sergeant, Tentative Solution
    8) Шутливое выражение: Twisted Sister
    9) Химия: Temperature Sensitive
    11) Религия: Tainted Souls, Two Spirit
    12) Юридический термин: Trustee Sale
    13) Бухгалтерия: Total Surplus
    14) Страхование: Timesheet
    15) Ветеринария: Teratology Society
    16) Грубое выражение: Terribly Sexy, Tiny Sex, Tortured Scrotum, Tough Shit
    17) Политика: Tunisia
    18) Телекоммуникации: Telecom Server, Tip And Sleeve, Tip Sleeve
    19) Сокращение: Civil aircraft marking (Tunisia), Telegraph System, Telemetering System, Time Stamp, Top Secret (security classification), Top Secret, Trainer Subsystem, Training Ship, Training Simulator, Transattack Survivability, Transmitter Segment, Transport Support, Tsonga, Tunisia (NATO country code), taper shank, tile base, time sharing, time switch, tool shed, tool steel, total slack, tough situation, transonic, tube sheet, typescript, test specification (number), транссексуал (transsexual), Tough Stuff, Transmission Subsystem, tricuspid stenosis
    22) Электроника: The Static, Time Step, Transparent Substrate
    23) Вычислительная техника: Traffic Shaping, transport stream, TriState (IC)
    24) Нефть: surface temperature, teflon steel, temperature switches, tray spacing, кровля солевого пласта (top salt), технические условия (technical specifications), технические условия на проведение испытаний
    25) Банковское дело: условия кредитования (term sheet( ЮКБ))
    27) Пищевая промышленность: Totally Sweet
    28) Фирменный знак: Thompson And Strickland, Tri Star
    29) СМИ: The Same
    30) Деловая лексика: Task Starts, Trade Services
    31) Бурение: песчаник тар-спрингс (Tar Springs; свита отдела честер миссисипской системы)
    32) Образование: Traffic School, Training Session
    33) Сетевые технологии: Tell Server, Terminal Server, Transaction Set, Transaction Systems
    35) Автоматика: tool sensor
    36) Пластмассы: Thermoplastics Screw
    37) Океанография: The Surface, Tropical Storm
    38) Химическое оружие: technical secretariat
    39) Расширение файла: Tape Status
    40) Нефть и газ: equipment test system
    41) Антарктика: Сила цели
    42) Электротехника: transformer substation, transient stability
    43) Фантастика Time Stalkers
    44) Имена и фамилии: Terminator Schwarzenegger, The Shark, Thomas Stearns
    45) Высокочастотная электроника: timeslot
    46) Должность: Tech Support, Telecommunication Science
    47) Чат: Terribly Sad
    48) Правительство: Treasure State
    49) Хобби: Terribly Scarce
    50) Международная торговля: Trade Specialist

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > ts

  • 19 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 20 balance

    1. n весы

    quick balance — безмен, пружинные весы

    elevator balance — элеваторные весы; компенсатор руля высоты

    2. n чаша весов

    to tip the balance — склонять чашу весов, давать перевес

    3. n равновесие; состояние равновесия

    off balance — неустойчивый, шаткий

    kept balance — сохранил равновесие; сохраненный равновесие

    4. n душевное равновесие; спокойствие; уравновешенность
    5. n пропорциональность; гармоническое сочетание
    6. n решающий фактор; решающее влияние или значение

    to old the balance — осуществлять контроль, распоряжаться

    7. n противовес, компенсатор; гиря
    8. n маятник, балансир, баланс
    9. n фин. баланс; сальдо; остаток

    trade balance, balance of trade — торговый баланс

    sterling balances — стерлинговые счета, стерлинговые авуары

    balances with foreign banks — остатки на счетах в заграничных банках, иностранные авуары

    balance in hand — денежная наличность, наличность кассы

    10. n разг. остаток
    11. n астр. Весы
    12. n спорт. брусья
    13. n спорт. стойка

    to weigh in the balance — взвешивать, обсуждать, оценивать

    14. v балансировать, сохранять равновесие, быть в равновесии
    15. v приводить в равновесие; уравновешивать, уравнивать
    16. v удовлетворять потребность
    17. v бухг. подсчитывать, подытоживать; сводить, заключать, закрывать; погашать; подбивать баланс

    balance arm — спица; балансир

    18. v бухг. сводиться, балансироваться

    balance accounts — сводить счета; уравнять счет

    draw up the balance — подводить баланс; сводить баланс

    19. v бухг. взвешивать, определять вес
    20. v бухг. взвешивать, обдумывать; сопоставлять
    21. v бухг. медлить, колебаться
    22. v бухг. противопоставлять, нейтрализовать, компенсировать
    23. v бухг. спец. добавлять недостающее количество
    24. v бухг. делать балансе
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. equilibrium (noun) counterpoise; equality; equilibrium; equipoise; equiponderation; equivalence; self-control; stasis
    2. harmony (noun) harmony; proportion; symmetry
    3. measure (noun) measure; scale
    4. poise (noun) aplomb; composure; coolness; equanimity; poise; self-possession
    5. remainder (noun) excess; heel; leavings; leftovers; remainder; remains; remanet; remnant; residual; residue; residuum; rest; surplus
    6. scales (noun) beam; scales; steelyard
    7. stability (noun) stability; steadiness
    8. compare (verb) adjust; assay; collate; compare; compute; consider; estimate; evaluate; ponder; prove; reconcile; weigh
    9. compensate (verb) allow for; atone for; compensate; counteract; counterpoise; countervail; make up; make up for; neutralise; neutralize; offset; outweigh; readjust; redeem; set off
    10. equalise (verb) counterbalance; equalise; equalize; even; level; perch; poise; set; square; stabilise; stabilize; steady
    Антонимический ряд:
    asymmetry; disproportion; instability; subvert; tilt; upset

    English-Russian base dictionary > balance

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